Analysis of Traditions Concerning Mosaic Authorship

Analysis of Traditions Concerning Mosaic Authorship Introduction The Christian Holy Bible is not one book, but a library of sixty six books recorded over many centuries. Within its pages are literary genres that include Law, History, Wisdom, Poetry, Gospel, Epistles, Prophecy, and Apocalyptic Literature. The Bible can be likened to other literature in that it is made up of many types or kinds of language, however it can distinguish itself from other books known to man, in that it claims to be a written revelation of mans creator.[1] The Bible as used in Christianity is made up of the Old and New Testaments, these are combined and intended to compliment each other and form the canon of the Christian church. It is the first five books of the Bible and their authorship that will be of concern to this thesis. The first five books of the Bible include Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. These volumes narrate the story of Israel from the creation of the world through the period of the flood and the patriarchs, to the Exodus from Egypt, wanderings in the desert, and the giving of the law at Sinai. The books conclude with Moses farewell to the people of Israel.[2] McDowell and Stewart (1980) assert that, Christianity believes and teaches that the Bible alone is the revealed word of God, it is an anthology composed of His words and deeds; and as a result views itself as Gods word'[3]. McDowell emphasises that evidence for this claim can be found within the Bible itself, he quotes directly from scriptures such as; 2 Peter 1:21[4] and uses clauses like, And God spoke to Moses, as suggested evidence to back up the Bibles claim.[5] The first five books are known by several pseudonyms, some more common than others and often dependent on the religion one follows. Expressions includ e; the Pentateuch, the Five Books of Moses, the Torah and the Book of the Lawfor the purpose of this thesis the scriptures will be referred to as The Pentateuch. The contents of the Pentateuch can be seen as a partly historical, legal and narrative portrayal; the five books cover the history of the chosen people from chronicles concerning the creation of the world to the death of Moses and also enlighten us with the civil and religious legislation of the Israelites during the life of their great lawgiver.[6] This literary account is also a storya story that conveys the history of Israel. Pfeiffer (1957) describes the Old Testament as, the meagre surviving portion of the literature of the Israelites.[7] Therefore the authorship of these works, the time and manner of their origin and historicity are of great importance; the belief of Mosaic authorship or lack of it can affect the building blocks on which religion itself is structured. The books are not just of fundamental importance to one religion but have recognition in othersChristians put their faith in both the Old and New Testaments; whilst Judaism holds the first five books of the Old Te stament as the most important division of their Hebrew canon.[8] Although Islam believes the Quran is Gods last word to the world; it considers the Old and New testaments to also be divinely inspired.[9] The aim, therefore of this dissertation is to provide a critical analysis of traditions that surround Mosaic authorship. It will discuss the debate from its infancy and will pass through, albeit briefly, three centuries, culminating in its relevance and status in the modern world. This work is not an attempt to prove or indeed disprove Mosaic authorship, it is however an endeavour to take a glimpse into the dispute whilst attempting to understand its relevance in an historical, biblical and theological context. This work does not intend to uncover or discover new knowledge per se, but intends to discuss contemporary contributions and hypothesis. Sources to be used and accessed will include primary and secondary sources such as the Bible, journal articles and a myriad of published works scholarly, religious and secular in nature. A historical survey will include a review of relevant literature, some of which is dated, but still relevant in placing the debate in an historical setting. Much of the literature and indeed the hypotheses surrounding Mosaic authorship tend to remain in scholarly and academic distribution, it is within these circles that the primary interest has remained. As we shall see, scriptural translations have been proven to be less than exact and it is this that provides the background for the continuing debate. A breakthrough in authorship identity was put forward in the eighteenth century and came to be known as the Documentary Hypothesis. This hypothesis was and is however, simply a theory of evolution not of man, but of mans recorded dealings with God.[10] Chapter 1 Mosaic Authorship called into question Historical Survey History recognizes that there were a few problems with the traditional view of Moses as author. Walton and Hill (2000) explain that although the early church fathers challenged the integrity and antiquity of the Mosaic Pentateuch their methods were deemed as pre-critical. Furthermore they observe that, it was not until much later, that the Age of Reason spurned an era of critical study of the Bible and allowing traditional understanding of the Old and New Testaments to be questioned'[11] Challenges to Mosaic authorship were often explained as interpretation or the introduction of additional narrative details that did not appear in the text. Other explanations included the fact that Moses was Gods prophet and so was in receipt of His divine word.[12] However as biblical expertise grew so did the challenges and new answers to old questions began to emerge. As early as the eleventh century, allusions and suggestions were being tentatively voiced.[13] Abraham Ibn Ezra, a twelfth century Spanish rabbi held the belief that the language used in several passages of the Pentateuch reflected another time and place than that of Moses, views that he was unwilling to say outright. In references to his own views of the passages he wrote, If you understand, then you will recognise the truthAnd he who understands will keep silent.'[14] In the following centurys scholars such as Bonfils, Tostatus, Bishop of Avila, Andreas Van Maes and Thomas Hobbes put forward their own evaluations that questioned the authorship of the Pentateuch. Their findings ranged from citing a few sentences, to Thomas Hobbes declaration that the majority of the Pentateuch could not have been penned by Moses.[15] In the seventeenth century, Deuteronomy, which reports the death of Moses, and also describes Moses as the most humble man who ever lived'[16] was critically assessed b y Benedict Spinoza, who concluded that, It is clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses, but by someone who lived long after Moses.[17] Many of these scholars had attempts made on their lives, their works were placed on the Catholic index of Prohibited books or burned; others were arrested and forced to recant their views. The history of this dispute therefore shows that many renowned writers, philosophers and historians succumbed to the enticing plethora of hypothesis concerning Mosaic authorship. Josephus, the Jewish historian, states, He (Moses) also set down in writing the form of their Government, and those lawsthe laws he ordained were such as God suggested to him.[18] When looking more closely at the sacred books of the Jews he further declares: And of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws and the origins of mankind till his death[19] These words echo down from centuries past, representing the view and opinion of Jewish Scholars in attributing the Pentateuch to Moses. Further along in time, Luthers translations of each of the five books of the Pentateuch are entitled a book of Moses thus showing an acceptance of this belief in the historic Christian Church.[20] Opposing Josephus view and in contrast to Luther, the nineteenth century German critic Hartmann denied Mosaic authorship on the grounds that it was quite literally impossible because writing had not yet been invented. MacDonald (1995), disagrees and asserts that, Archaeological discoveries of the past 100 years have proven once and for all that the art of writing was known not only during Moses day, but also long before Moses came on the scene.'[21] These facts do not help prove or disprove Mosaic authorship, however it does provide us with a time frame within which the debate became anthropomorphized. An historic timeline in this debate is important in that it can be used as a reference point to work forwards or backwards from, particularly as disputes over the chronological timeline concerning events from the Pentateuch remain relevant today. Genesis as the foundation of Israel As the first book of the Pentateuch, Genesis purpose is to tell how and why God came to choose Abrahams family and make a covenant with them. A covenant that is significant in that it is the foundation of Israelite theology and identity.[22] Genesis also introduces us to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the three patriarchs of the people of Israel. The patriarchal stories depicted in Genesis are important in that they, lent expression to the fundamental importance of the family for all other forms of society in the period when the tribes were developing into a people and state.'[23] However, controversy surrounds them, many Biblical scholars and archaeologists debate about whether or not the Patriarchs actually lived. Placing the Patriarchs on an Old Testament timeline depends closely on ones dating (if any) of the Exodus event.[24] Hendel (2001) believes that every kind of religious literature in the Hebrew Bible celebrates the Exodus as a foundational event; it is seen as the main historical warrant for the religious bond between Yahweh and Israel[25] [26] W. F. Albright was confident that the Exodus was an historical event and assigned a date of ca. 1297 BCE.[27] In comparison the renowned source critic Julius Wellhausen asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the Patriarchs but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in later age. In contrast, Claus Westermann asserts that, Storytelling is the predecessor of all history. [28] He explains further: Storytellers recounted what took place, what they observed, in order to share it with others. The original purpose of the stories was to allow new generations to share in the experiences and knowledge of their ancestors.[29] Many biblical scholars and theologians would agree that Mosaic authorship is relevant, however for others it is seen to be irrelevant and convey a Does it really matter? attitude. Yet there are references made within the Bible itself that attribute the authorship of the Pentateuch to Moses. These are often drawn upon in defence of Mosaic authorshipthere are about two dozen verses in the Hebrew Scriptures and one dozen in the Christian Scriptures which state or strongly imply that Moses was the author. [30] Old and New Testament Scriptures The Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch is intrinsically connected to the question of Moses as the author or intermediary of Old Testament legislation.[31] A Mosaic link between the Old and New Testaments can be found within the texts themselves. New Testament writers use references and quotes from the Old Testament just as Moses within the Old Testament prophesises of what was to comethus enabling an affiliation of the Old with the New, creating a volume that merges into one complete tome. The books of the Bible can be likened to any group of books that share the same subject; they express a similarity in their subject roots and yet provide a contrast that is inherited from their author. As one writes in the contemporary world ideas and words need to have references to back them up, evidence and proof that others perhaps have considered your own words. The same could therefore be said of the New Testament writers, following the same pattern allow the different expressions of writer s to be expressed. The burden of proof If the authorship of the Pentateuch were ever to be unequivocally disproved the consequences could be devastating for the religions involved, DeHaan (1982) explains, Prove that Moses did not write the books of the Pentateuch and you prove that Jesus was totally mistaken and not the infallible Son of God he claimed to be. Upon your faith in Moses as the writer of the five books attributed to him rests also your faith in Jesus as the Son of God. You cannot believe in Jesus Christ without believing what Moses wrote.[32] DeHaans view is made clear by this simple paradigm, however, closer inspection of the words and their implied significance opens up a chasm of queries and insinuations that require further investigation. When considering this statement one finds that the overarching subliminal message that appears within the text is the necessity of proof. Fundamentally this is a statement about the assumed relationship between Moses as author of the five books, and Jesus who within the New Testament attributes the Law to Moses. These words resound as a modern day echo of Jesus words as described by New Testament Gospel writer John, For if you believed Moses, you would believe Me, for he wrote of Me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will you believe My words? [33] Moreover, in the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus makes the following statement; Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I did not come to abolish, but to fulfil. For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away from the Law, until all is accomplished. Whoever then annuls one of the least of these commandments, and so teaches others, shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever keeps and teaches them, he shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.[34] These words, ascribed to Jesus, show that Jesus himself acknowledges Moses as the author of the Pentateuch. Furthermore He is sending out a strong message by stating that, in not believing what Moses wrote about Him, we will not believe anything He has to say either. What then is the bearing of the words spoken by Jesus upon the question of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch? In the New Testament Jesus references to Moses are ampleMoses commands, Moses said, Moses wroteare all used within its context by the authors of the Gospels. Stevens (1889), an early Old Testament authorship writer, suggests that Jesus speaks of the Pentateuch using popular designations of the time and was not in fact confirming authorship.[35] Chapter 2 Enlightenment and the influence of Source criticism It was not too long ago that Jews and Christians held the universal view that Moses alone wrote the Pentateuch. A delve into the history of the debate shows that although numerous attempts were made to credit or discredit its composition and authorship, Mosaic authorship and its credibility remained stagnant for many years. The authorship debate first became apparent in the aftermath of what is known as the period of enlightenment. The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas and provided the cultural shift necessary for the emergence of a new confidence in the power of human reason.[36] Immanuel Kant (1784) in his essay What is Enlightenment? simply describes it as freedom to use ones own intelligence.[37] Clarke (1997) describes Kants view of Enlightenment as the point at which a human being recognizes his or her autonomy.[38] Whereas Ames (1925) depicts religion for Kant as being something a man lived and did not merely think about.'[39] Many scientists and religionists alike would gladly accept such a simplification of their problems, [40] nevertheless the Enlightenment period was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism along with increasing questioning of religious orthodoxy.[41] Questions regarding Pentateuchal authorship had led to rumblings and critica l analysis by past Biblical Scholars, however it was French physician Jean Astruc who initiated modern literary or source analysis of the Old Testament.[42] According to Pfeiffer (1957) when the Pentateuch was canonized in 400 BCE, it was firmly believed that Moses was its author.[43] He explains further that Biblical investigations and critical analysis passed through different stages; here he cites Astruc (1753), Geddes (1798) and De Wette (1806) as principle theorists. [44] The Enlightenment thus created a significant shift that resulted in the historical-critical method which suggested that we should accept as true only that which can be empirically proven.[45] As a result by the 19th century, traditional views on Mosaic authorship had ceased to be entertained by mainstream scholars and by the closing decades of the 19th century, a theory by Julius Wellhausen became a theoretical forerunner, with the majority of critics coming to view his theory with accord. Julius Wellhausen In 1895 Julius Wellhausen gave an explanation of Pentateuchal origin, his hypothesis became known as the documentary or JEDP hypothesis.[46] This hypothesis explains that the Pentateuch was compiled from four original source documents—designated as J, E, D, and P. These four documents supposedly were written at different times by different authors, and eventually were compiled into the Pentateuch by a redactor (editor). The J is characterized by its authors use of the divine name Yahweh. Elohim is the divine name that identifies the E or Elohist document. The D, or Deuteronomist, document contained most of the book of Deuteronomy. The last section to be written was the P, or Priestly, document, which would have contained most of the priestly laws. We are told these documents were then redacted (edited) into one work about 300 years later in 200 B.C.[47] Wellhausens timing was perfect, the public were open to new theories as religiosity began to be questioned; textual criticism was able to find ground from which its roots could take hold and grow. Goshen-Gottstein explains, the rise of textual criticism depended on preconditions and on certain attitudes and dispositions, beyond the basic linguistic capabilities.[48] Wellhausen attained his results by a faithful application of the uses of evidence; he assembled relevant facts and built a reasoned construction upon them, this became the characteristic of the subsequent critical movement.[49] Oswald T. Allis (1943) explains Wellhausens method further, The slightest variations in diction, style, viewpoint or subject matter were seized upon as indicative of difference in author, date, and source. The miraculous element is viewed with suspicion and regarded either as evidence of the late date and unreliability of a narrative, or as proof that it represents a primitive and unscientific account of phenomena in which a modern writer would see only the operation of natural processes.[50] The analysis of the written word became paramount in defining Mosaic authorship as well as adding to the longevity of the debate. Hill and Walton (2000) affirm, the multiplicity and complexity of these literary forms that have been directly responsible for the ongoing debate over the composition of the Pentateuch.'[51] Furthermore they argue that the literature of the Pentateuch is considered to be a collection of rich and literary genres that enhance both the artistic nature and key theological themes that unify it.[52] This new modern world saw the naissance of an innovative period of science and technology; this opened the door for a myriad of explanations to be proposed concerning Mosaic authorship. McDowell suggests that the very origin of modern science rests upon the truth of the scripture he goes further to explain that there is a God that created and designed an ordered universe this prompted men like Newton to search for certain scientific laws to explain this order.[53] It can be said then that science and the scriptures do not cancel each other out; they simply look at the world from different perspectives, but are not finally contradictory.[54] Merrill Unger expresses concern about rejecting Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch in favour of the Documentary theory he suggests that conservative scholarship should realise anew the essential unsoundness of critical hypothesis and cease trying to reconcile its potent unbelief with the tenets of historic evangelical Christianity and conservative Judaism'[55] William Henry Green (1895) disagrees with this hypothesis and claims that the books of the bible have nothing to fear from investigations into its genuineness and credibility he goes on to suggest that thorough searching can only result in establishing more firmly the truth of the claims, which the Bible makes for itself, The bible stands upon a rock from which it can never be dislodged. [56] Hill (2000) explains that the source analysis approach, which gained prominence during the nineteenth century, not only affected the way scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Furthermore he states that, Julius Wellhausen, the most influential of the source critics asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age.'[57] Towards the contemporary world: a look at archaeology Scholarship can sometimes become stagnant, however in the case of Pentateuchal studies the debate between different points of view continues to ebb and flow. As yet, no new consensus has emerged about the composition of the Pentateuch.[58] Publications over the past one hundred years show that many other theories or indeed modifications of theories have arisen. The Wellhausen theory itself has come under much criticism and though it still has its proponents, it is no longer a universal agreement of authority in critical scholarship. The subject then remains an enigma and is no closer to a solution now, than it was when first queried. Yet the debate does continue to thrive, aided because, with the passage of time the earth unleashes its hidden treasures and technological inventions are created that allow us to peel back the centuries and glimpse into the past. Fresh discoveries it seems wield new evidence that scholars pounce upon to argue their case. One area in contemporary society that has emerged in favour of biblical accuracy is the field of archaeology. Archaeology is defined by Muncaster (2000) as the systematic study of things that cultures have left behind.'[59] W. F. Albright the great archaeologist concludes that the past 100 years has seen archaeology verify some of the history contained in the bible, he states: There can be no doubt that archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition. [60] Finkelstein and Silberman (2002) attest that, Archaeology has helped us to reconstruct the history behind the bible.'[61] More recent publications aim to verify the historicity of the Old Testament using archaeological evidence, Muncaster (2000) suggests that the accuracy of the Old Testament is vital to the Bibles message and that archaeology provides one means of confirming the historical accuracy.[62] To confirm or prove the historical accuracy of the Bible one needs to consider the implications of proof. Does proof relate to disproving the facts of the Bible and the account held within it, does this mean that the words spoken by Jesus in the New Testament and the history of the Israelite nation is condemned to hearsay? Archaeology offers some answers, but is it concrete? Gnuse (1994) expresses the opinion that, Who or what Moses was ultimately is irrelevant; for he stands as a symbol of process. The traditional figure of Moses symbolizes the initiation of the religious journey.[63] McDowell stresses a cautionary note in relation to archaeology, as he says, all too often the phrase Archaeology proves the Bible arises, in answer to this he uses the word prove to stress the interpreters usage that could cause incorrect assumptions, Archaeology cannot prove the Bible, if by that you mean prove it to be inspired and revealed by God. If by prove, one means, Showing some biblical event or passage to be historical. Then it would be a correct usage. [64] The world within which we now live is far removed from the world of Wellhausen and even further removed from the era of scribes and patriarchs. In a time where archaeology has uncovered scripts that peel back time and allow modern technology to wield its powerthere is still no right or wrong answer that appears as a forerunner. Using science and technology as an aid, scholars, theologians and archaeologist are still embroiled in a quest to answer the questions that revolve around Bible authorship. Scrolls retrieved from the caves in Qumran are being drawn on by scholars to provide scriptural evidence and possible explanations of Mosaic authorship. Cook (1994) explains that the Old Testament prophets, Foresaw a golden age for Israel when her various trials, punishments, exiles and tribulations were over'[65] This Golden Age includes the arrival of a messiah one who would reign by peace and blessings of every kind.[66] Verification of these prophecies can be established and linked to M oses; in Deuteronomy Moses speaks of a coming prophet like himself[67]. Further, Isaiah describes the one who brings good news, who proclaims peace, who brings good tidings, who proclaims salvation.'[68] Qumran, harbour of the Dead Sea Scrolls, held within cave four a scroll that refers to Moses as Gods anointed, Strugnell cited in Cook (1994); Cursed is the man who does not arise and observe and do according to all the commandments of the Lord in the mouth of Moses His Anointed One, and to walk after the Lord, the God of our fathers, who commands us from Mount Sinai.[69] Could this then be seen as Proof that Moses was a prophet, an anointed one who prophesized the coming of another like him? A prophet who was himself to foretell all that was to come[70] If so then is this proof that Moses also wrote the Pentateuch? One could argue that if Moses words are proven to be reliable through the fulfilled prophecies within the Bible and the archaeological findings that appear to corroborate them. McDowells admonitory note on archaeological evidence re-surfaces in Bartlett (2002), when he states that, There are still major problems between the relationship of the archaeological findings to the fact and contents of the scrolls. However, he also professes a hope that, subsequent research will throw light on them.'[71] Scholarly differences of opinion are clearly visible as is the interpretation of related scripture. Bernstein (1997) in reviewing Lawrence Schiffmans work, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls points out that the narrative and legal Pentateuchal texts found in the caves, show the array of exegetical methods ready for the Qumran interpreter.'[72] There is no doubt, declares Bernstein, That any reviewer will find one or another chapter of the book deficient from some specific perspective; this will always be the case when a broad synthesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written by virtually any scholar, for no one is equally competent in all the complex fields of Dead Sea Scrolls scholarship. What Schiffman has done is to contextualize these texts for interpretation, and that is more important than his particular interpretation of any specific issue. [73] It is this difference in interpretation that allows the debate to continue to thrive. A contemporary scholar in biblical studies, Richard Elliot Friedman equates Mosaic authorship to, a detective story spread across the centuries with investigators uncovering clues to the Bibles origins one by one [74] Furthermore, he states that, There is hardly a biblical scholar in the world who would claim that the Five Books of Moses were written by Moses or by any one person.'[75] And yet Moses is arguably a leading figure in both religion and history, his words are the foundation of faith for over half the earths population.[76] Phillips (2003) clarifies that the three great monotheistic religions of the world have derived from the revealed holy laws of the ancient Israelites. He concurs that Moses God became not only the God of Judaism but of Christianity and Islam.'[77] For the authors of scripture then, history is a theological tool by which God reveals Himself. Archaeology can authenticat e history but it cannot authenticate theology, and from the biblical perspective, history devoid of theology is meaningless.[78] Prophecy The Jewish nation believes that history and prophecy are inextricably intertwined,[79] history was recorded by more than one culture and was therefore documented, however for Israel, prophecy was assurance that the writings were from God.[80] [81] Prophecies detailed in the Old covenant are said to be longer-term prophecies those fulfilled by Jesus in the New Testament and ultimately classed as inspiration from God.[82] McGrath (2007) describes the majority position within Christian theology has, in one hand emphasized the continuity between the two testaments, while on the other noting the distinction between them.'[83] One of the strongest arguments used by adherents to Mosaic authorship, stems from the predictions it makes within its pages about the future. These events are what give Biblical scholars reason to continue their pursuit of Mosaic verification. Of these prophecies one in particular is used to corroborate Mosaic authorship: the advent of an anointed one who was to ar rive in the future. Often when one reads about the Mosaic Pentateuch one can find statements that refer to the infallibility of scripture, in particular with regards to Jesus Christ. Livingston (2004) claims that Christ knew the scriptures thoroughly, even to words and tenses[84] and that Jesus also believed, every word of scripture, the historicity of the Old Testament and that it was spoken by God Himself, thereby affirming that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, even thought the pen was held by men.'[85] Furthermore, Livingston states that, if we are to believe that his life was guided by prophecy, then he was subject to a life that was written for him, does this limit the choices he had to make or was he just Gods tool, there to fulfil Gods plan? However Jesus obeyed Gods word and His authority. He came to do Gods will and in doing so fulfilled Old Testament He fulfilled Old Testament prophecies about Himself.[86] LangMarch (1995) explains that Jesus places a great amount of emphasis on the fulfilment of s cripture; this he maintains confirms its veracity.[87] However this point is one that cannot be overlooked for if Biblical Scholars find the scriptures to be in error then the obvious conclusion would be that Jesus too was in error and could not have been the infallible son of God. Chapter Three Current views and hypothesis Throughout the history of this debate scholars have battled in order to propose their own interpretation of scripture. These battles are still relevant and consume the minds of contemporary scholars. Time, it seems has not diminished the pursuit of truth, contemporary scholars are just as committed in their attempts to solve the authorship problem as their past contemporaries. In the past four decades there have been numerous publications concerning Pentateuchal authorship and views are still divided. P.N. Benware (1993) states that, Moses was the human author of Genesis and the other books of the Pentateuch he adds, These five books of the law were written by Moses alone, with the exception of Deuteronomy 34, which records the death of Moses The Pentateuch, therefore, is an inspired, inerrant, authoritative document written by the man Moses. [88] The authors of the New C

Henry Jekyll’s Full Statement of the Case Essay

‘The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde’ was written in 1886 by Robert Louis Stevenson. The story derived from one of Stevenson’s many adult nightmares and raised questions about Society and Religion that was debated by many people. The story was about the duality of man and how Dr. Jekyll tried splitting the good and evil. A result of this was Mr. Hyde and his pure evil personality. In the novel, the last chapter ‘Henry Jekyll’s Full Statement of the Case’ answered many questions brought up earlier in the story. Dr. Jekyll is portrayed as a respected and distinguished, well brought up man at the beginning of chapter 10. This is clear in the words, ‘[he was] fond of the respect of the wise and good among my fellow-men’, and ‘with every guarantee of an honourable and distinguished future’. These statements show us he has all the traits of a gentleman because it says ‘good among my fellow men’ and fond of the respect of the wise’ which meant he liked other high honourable men respecting him; however he feels as though he already leads a double life. We see this in the words, ‘I concealed my pleasures’ and ‘I stood already committed to a found duplicity of life.’ This tells us that although he likes having he privileges of a gentleman he also enjoys doing something he can’t, which would tarnish his reputation. Before he started the experiment Jekyll lead a respected and high life style of being respected by others and being well off and had a theory on good and evil. Jekyll believed that man was made up of 2 personalities, one good and evil. This is clear in the text when Jekyll explains, ‘That man is not truly one, but truly two’. He had a large interest in the duality of nature. He believed he could split everyone’s two personalities into two different people. Jekyll was excited by the idea of separating the two identities. This is apparent when he says ‘ I had learned to dwell with the pleasure, as a beloved daydream, on the thought of the separation of these elements’ he thought that by separating the two identities they would stop irritating each other and he was excited by separating the two personalities because he says he’d ‘learned to dwell with the pleasure†¦of the separation of these two elements.’ Therefore, this was Jek yll’s ultimate desire and he worked towards this ground-breaking experiment. Jekyll undertook the experiment to try and split his two personalities and to prove that it was possible. He believed he could brew a potion that would make his good and evil side split into two. It is clear because Jekyll explains that he ‘managed to compound a drug by which these powers should be dethroned from their supremacy’. He tells us that mixing the elements would combine their power and he thinks this will split his two personalities into two different people. After he compounded the drug Jekyll hesitated to take it because he knew it was a powerful drug and he risked death. This is proven in the statement ‘I hesitated long before I put this theory to the test of practice. I knew well that I risked death’ Jekyll knew that he risked his life but was sure that he could do it and had faith in his theory of the dual personalities and duality of man. Once Jekyll finally takes the drug he describes the transformation as ‘the most racking pangs succeeded: a grinding in the bones, deadly nausea, and a horror of the spirit that cannot be exceeded at the hour of birth or death’. The way he described the feelings was excruciating pain and that he imagined that you could only feel such pain at the hour of birth or death. This would of made the reader feel repel the reader but also excite them because they would want to know what happens. A Victorian reader probably would find this very controversial and might be slightly offended by the words that are used. When Jekyll first became Hyde he knew from the moment he changed that he was more evil already, this is obvious in the words ‘I knew myself, at the first breath of this new life, to be more wicked, tenfold more wicked’. Although Jekyll knew that he was even more wicked as Hyde he seemed to have positive feelings towards him. He felt as though when he was Hyde he was free and had no cares in the world. This is reflected in the words ‘I looked upon that ugly idol in the glass, I was conscious of no repugnance, rather of a leap of welcome’. Before the experiment Jekyll felt as though he already lead a double life and had to ‘conceal his pleasures’, but as Hyde he had someone in which he could unleash all his forbidden cravings and not have a conscience after doing so. He’d found a ‘perfect’ solution. Jekyll could become Hyde by taking a potion and Hyde could become Jekyll by reversing the potion. Jekyll believed that his experiment was all under control. However, as Hyde grew stronger it was proven that he learned to control Jekyll. This is shown in the quote ‘Yes, I had gone to bed Henry Jekyll, I had awakened Edward Hyde. How was this to be explained? I asked myself; and then, with another bound of terror – how was it to be remedied?’ Hyde was becoming stronger then Jekyll and was beginning to control him, Hyde could pick and choose when he wanted to come out, and Jekyll had no control now. This also showed Jekyll’s panic and increasing lack of control because he’d began to ask himself how he could keep control of Hyde. Due to Hyde’s strength becoming more powerful Jekyll decided to stop taking the potion hoping that it would stop Hyde forever. Jekyll was scared that Hyde would take over forever. This is shown in the words ‘the balance of my nature might be permanently overthrown, the power of voluntary change be forfeited, and the character of Edward Hyde become irrevocably mine’ and he had a difficult decision as he states ‘To cast it in with Hyde was to die a thousand interests and aspirations, and to become, at a blow forever, despised and friendless.’ In these words it tells us if he was to stay as Hyde he would be giving up thousands of his dreams and goals in live and become friendless because no one liked Hyde. Due to the fact Jekyll was scared that Hyde would take over he had to make a decision whether he would stay as Jekyll or Hyde. His decision was thwarted by Hyde but his resolution to be rid of Hyde helps the reader empathise with Jekyll. Jekyll stopped taking the drug hoping he would stay as Jekyll forever, however because Jekyll was taking the drug for so long he had become an addict and felt as though he could feel Hyde struggling for freedom and he took the drug once again after 3 months. This is clear in the words ‘I began to be tortured with throes and longings, as of Hyde struggling after freedom; and at last, in an hour of moral weakness, I once again compounded and swallowed the transforming draught’. These words prove that Hyde was struggling to break free from Jekyll when Jekyll had stopped taking the potion and Jekyll was finding it hard to not take the drug, I know this because it says ‘ I began to be tortured.’ The words struggle, tortured and longings all suggest conflict between the two identities. By the end of the novel Jekyll’s feelings towards Hyde had turned completely opposite from what they were at the beginning. Hyde and Jekyll had a pure hatred for each other and it was as if they were both trying to make each other’s lives worse. This is clear from the words ‘The powers of Hyde seemed to have grown with the sickliness of Jekyll. And certainly the hate that now divided them was equal on each side.’ This statement shows us how strong the hatred between both sides but also the power struggle because Hyde was becoming stronger the more he hated Jekyll. Again, it is shown in the words, ‘The powers of Hyde seemed to have grown with the sickliness of Jekyll.’ Thus representing the imbalance of power between the two. Although Jekyll’s hatred for Hyde was strong he carried on taking it because he felt like he was addicted to it. At one point in the novel it describes Jekyll taking the drug to someone with an addiction like to alcohol. He says, ‘I do not suppose that when a drunkard reasons with himself upon his vice, he is once out of five hundred times affected by the dangers that he runs through his brutish physical insensibility.’ Here Jekyll refers to himself as a drunk and says he cannot reason with himself because he feels as though the drug has already affected him. Therefore, because Jekyll is addicted to the drug, this is why he carries on taking it and he has no power or self respect anymore. When Jekyll says ‘I fell into slavery’ he means that Hyde has become stronger than him and has began to control him, making him take the drug and become Hyde more then he actually wants. Also at other times the drug has begun to control him because he is like an addict he has the feeling to want to take the drug all the time like and alcoholic would want to drink alcohol. In a way we begin to feel sorry for him here but however, we know it is his fault for carrying on taking the potions just because he enjoys not having any cares and getting away with things. In the novel Hyde is a very powerful and dominant character. He has multiple characteristics throughout the story. He is described as ‘so much smaller, slighter, and younger then Henry Jekyll.’ The physical description of him is very different from Henry Jekyll’s. However it also says that ‘evil was written broadly and plainly on the face of the other.’ This tell us that Hyde may have been smaller and younger the Jekyll however he is much more evil. Hyde’s character is the complete opposite of Jekyll’s and is described as ‘more wicked, a tenfold more wicked.’ This tells us that Hyde is ten times more wicked than Jekyll by using the word ‘tenfold’. This makes the reader concerned for what Hyde might do to Jekyll. As well Hyde is described as a ‘man of stone’ this simile tells us that he has no emotions or feelings for others. In parts of the final chapter Hyde is referred to as unnatural. This is shown in the phrase ‘something not only hellish but inorganic.’ Jekyll believes that is something that is not real, which is true because he is not a real person, just something created from a potion. As well as being described as unnatural during the final chapter he is also referred to as an animal. This is proven in the statement ‘a creature eaten up and emptied by fever.’ This phrase tells us that Hyde has traits of and animal by the way he acts and what he does, he acts as a savage animal in the wild when he kills innocent people. Hyde’s actions are disgraceful and evil throughout the novel. Some of these actions are when he trampled a little girl in the street. Jekyll reflects by saying, ‘An act of cruelty to a child aroused against me the anger of a passer-by.’ This act makes Jekyll angry at Hyde for being cruel to a child and this is clear because he describes it as an act of cruelty and he is also angry because he makes a passer by angry and it could tarnish Jekyll’s reputation if people found out they were connected in a way. Another one of Hyde’s actions was the murder of Sir Danvers Carew. This criminal act is proven in the statement ‘Some two months before the murder of Sir Danvers.’ These actions show that Hyde is pure evil and has no emotion and will do anything. His actions result in him having to go into hiding because people know that he killed Sir Danvers. The way he killed Sir Danvers Carew was described as, ‘mauling the unresisting body’ this would of shocked and scared the reader because it would of created a disturbing imagery. Jekyll’s character is different from Hyde. Firstly, Jekyll is old and elderly; this is proven when he describes himself as ‘elderly’ in the novel. However, Hyde is the opposite and is young and carefree. I know this because it says ‘younger, lighter, happier.’ This shows that they are both opposites and this is what is meant when the author describes them as ‘polar twins’. Another way Jekyll is different from Hyde is that Jekyll has a conscience whereas Hyde doesn’t. This is clear when Jekyll says, ‘I was conscious even when I took the draught’ and in comparison Hyde says â€Å"gloating on my crime.† These statements prove that even though Hyde has done worse things than Jekyll, Jekyll seems to have more of a conscience. Although as well as having his own conscience, Jekyll seems to feel guilty for what he does when he is Hyde too. But, Hyde ‘gloats’ at his crimes, therefore proving that he is immoral and not sorry for what he’s done, this would of shocked and scared the Victorian reader. Also another difference between Jekyll and Hyde is that Jekyll becomes as Hyde becomes strong. I know this because of the statements â€Å"sickliness in Jekyll’ and ‘the powers of Hyde seemed to have grown.’ This proves that as Jekyll continued to take the drug he made Hyde stronger and it began to be a struggle between them both. Jekyll controlled the growth in Hyde because he carried on taking the potion because he had become an addict; he carried on taking the drug which began to make Hyde come out more often, making him a lot stronger. I know that Jekyll became an addict to the drug because it says ‘I fell into slavery’ by using the word slavery it tells us that Hyde was beginning to control Jekyll because the more he took the transforming draught the more he became a slave to Hyde. The result of not controlling the growth of Hyde was Hyde getting stronger and stronger and eventually Hyde begins to control Jekyll because he could come out whenever he wanted and this shows how Hyde gains power over Jekyll and through the novel it shows the constant power struggle. At the end of the novel Jekyll knows that his experiments have failed and has to face the consequences. I believe that Jekyll made sure he died by his choice before letting Hyde take over for good. By killing himself Jekyll made sure that he was technically killing Hyde and that he wasn’t left free to do evil things once he finally took over Jekyll’s body and it was a matter of pride and doing what was right for others. Jekyll was very wise to do such a thing for others and at the end of the novel I believe that Jekyll didn’t regret his experiments at all. Jekyll was foolish to meddle with the darker side of science and philosophy. However, he didn’t deserve to die because he only wanted to try something new and succeed. If Jekyll hadn’t done this experiment then some one else would have. After reading the whole novel, I believe that the final chapter is very important to the story. It answers to most questions that are raised earlier in the topic. For example, when Utterson saw Jekyll at the window and Jekyll ignored him we now know that he ignored him and went away because he must have been changing into Hyde. Another example of a question being answered was why Lanyon was so shocked when he say Jekyll and never wanted to see him again, and this was due to him changing into Hyde in front of him. By seeing things from Jekyll’s perspective it gives us a clearer understanding of the power struggle between Hyde and himself and how Hyde eventually takes over. I would have liked to have seen at one point in the novel or final chapter some of Hyde’s viewpoint, but there wasn’t and perhaps Victorian readers would of liked this too because then maybe it would of given explanations for why Hyde did some of the things he did. Hyde is seen from other people’s perspectives all the time and maybe if we were to have read something from his perspective, we might have seen reasons why he did some of the things he did. However I do believe that the final chapter was key to the novel and made everything much clearer to the reader.

New Article Reveals the Low Down on Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics and Why You Must Take Action Today

New Article Reveals the Low Down on Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics and Why You Must Take Action Today The Appeal of Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics When it has to do with writing an argumentative essay, the most crucial point to do is to select a topic and an argument that you could really get behind. It's not sufficient to select a topic which everybody agrees on. Deciding upon an emotional topic is also an excellent idea. The key to pick a great topic for an argumentative essay is to select a subject where there's a lot of debates on topics or stances. The first thing which you might want to do once you've chosen your topic is to start with writing an outline. If you get to select your own topic, that's excellent. Therefore, the topic ought to be debatable! Quite frequently, the ideal topic is one which you truly care about, but you also will need to get ready to research it. Writing a college argumentative research paper isn't as simple as it may appear at first. However soon you're expected to file your college argumentative essay for grading, we'll write the paper for you. So should you need to employ college essay writer online, we're just the people that you will need to contact. The role of assigning an essay to middle school students is to make awareness and permit them to develop writing skills. Vital Pieces of Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's essential to at all times be critically considering the world around us. Moral argum entative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. The greatest argumentative essay topics are the simplest ones. Choosing topics for argumentative essays is critical for your general success. Easy expository essays are essays where you're predicted to work on facts as opposed to opinions. Professional essay writers at 5staressays can help you, when you're looking for specialists to guide you. You must have skills to compose a great essay. Young writers may try simple on-line citation generators which are generally at no charge. In any case, direct and indirect quotes are necessary to support your understanding of academic writing style. Relevant Topics that are related to your society will engage the reader in the very best possible method. The Debate Over Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics The sort of essay you're looking for will be provided to you within the deadline offered to you. You wish to choose something which is controversial since you can't really argue to refute facts. It's important to understand that essay topics are just basic ideas that leave you pondering an idea that might be a huge deal to another person. When you're picking your topic, remember that it's much simpler to write about something which you currently have interest ineven in case you don't know a good deal about it. Some topics you will choose to utilize for your paper helping listed below. Read the list and stay in mind that interesting topics are a suitable way for an intriguing assignment. Argumentative essay topics are the secret to creating an interactive and engaging bit of all citizens should dedicate an hour every week to community services. Argumentative research paper topics are a great deal much easier to find than to produce. Teenage Pregnancy Argumentative Essay Topics - Overview It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics since you need opposing points you can counter to your own points. If you are searching for top essay writing companies, try out the mentioned above. If you need to compose your whole essay in 1 day, do your very best to give yourself breaks so you don't burn out. There are several essay w riting services that think they're the very best, and therefore don't be cheated and check the legitimate list of the very best. One of the greatest methods to make writing a research paper easier is to opt for a topic that you're passionate about. College application essay topics are an important portion of an entertaining and compelling bit of writing. So without further ado, below are some effective writing tips to create your common app essay stick out! You may continue to keep your argumentative essays for your upcoming job portfolio in case they're highly graded. Man isn't a thing but a creature that may only be understood in the very long procedure of development. Teen pregnancy is a pregnancy in female human-beings that are below age twenty decades. Teen pregnancy is something which affects over one million young teens in america.

Dred Scott The American Civil War - 1618 Words

Dred Scott was a slave and social activist who served several masters before he had sued for his own freedom. He made history in America by launching a legal battle to gain his freedom. His case worked its way to the Supreme Court prior to the American Civil War. Dred Scott had a significant impact on American life during the Civil War Era because of his early years, when he was a slave in free territory, his suit for freedom, and his legacy.(â€Å"DS BIO†). Dred Scott impacted the world tremendously during his early years. Dred Scott was born sometime around the turn of the century, 1795, in Southampton County, Virginia. A legend has is that his name was not Dred but was Sam, but when his brother died, he adopted his name instead. His parents were also slaves, but it was unknown whether the Blow family owned them at his birth or after. Peter Blow and his family relocated to Huntsville, Alabama, and then they relocated to St. Louis Missouri(â€Å"SHS†) After Peter Blow died, in the 1830’s, Scott had been sold to the U.S. Army doctor, John Emerson. In 1836, He fell in love with a slave of a different army doctor, 19 year old Harriet Robinson, and her ownership had been transferred over to Dr.Emerson when they were married. In the next couple years, Dr.Emerson traveled to Illinois and to the Wisconsin Territories, which both had prohibited slavery in that time period. WhenShow MoreRelatedThe War Of The American Civil War1324 Words   |  6 PagesThere were many events that led to the cause of one of America’s most devastating war, the American Civil War. The American Civil War was an unfortunate war that cost more than the lives of six hundred thousand people. 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