Celebrity culture has a negative impact on teenagers free essay sample

Is it normal that seventy percent of the celebrities, male or female end up taking drugs or becoming alcoholic? Is our society like that? During the last twenty years many celebrities become stupidly rich, and don’t really know what to do with the money or how to manage those tremendous quantities. The necessity to spend it or waste it becomes more accentuated, and drugs may be a quick â€Å"solution† of wasting their money. But in most cases, they? re lives. Teenagers usually copy celebrity’s actions and looks they sometimes have them as role models. This can have two possible impacts on teenagers; negative or positive. When the star is a clear-minded, rational and healthy person, teenagers could make use of those blessings and maybe they want to emulate them so they can become great people. However, it doesn’t always end-up that way. Some famous people aren’t the most adequate role models someone can have. We will write a custom essay sample on Celebrity culture has a negative impact on teenagers or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Copying the wrong role model may have its consequences. Fashions and trends are often started by them and their extravagant ideas. Some people may argue that celebrities trail blaze new fashions and trends, which may give confidence and courage adolescents to stand out. However, the current fashion is for taking drugs, crash diets†¦For example, Paris Hilton became a fashion icon as she always wore pink and carried a small-scale chiguagua everywhere. Teens wanted to be just like her and it distracted girls on their studies as they only thought about wearing pink. Celebrities are said to inspire the world by giving advice about the errors and mistakes they did along the road. But is it really advice? Or just simple, meaningless and insignificant phrases which are systematically in our society. Famous quotes such as â€Å"As soon as you stop wanting something, you get it†-Andy Warhol may encourage to stop following their dreams and crashing their future objectives by just `stop wanting them? In my opinion, I think celebrity culture does has a negative effect on teenage life as a majority of them don’t show respect for the audience and admirers who appreciate their work and they don’t make a secret of alcohol or drug abuse and the glamorization of dying due to an overdose, or the culture of being walking skeletons which can alter teenager’s self image and might contribute to an eating disorder or low self-esteem.

Geographic and Social Mobility in Monterrey

Questions: 1. Assess the biomedical and social medical approaches to health and ill health. 2. you need to use three different sociological perspectives to discuss patterns and trends of health and illness in two chosen social groups. 3. you also need to evaluate your sociological explanation of the patterns and trends of health and ill health in the two social groups. Answers: Socio-Medical Model The models focus is on the various types of social factors which have a direct influence on any persons well being and health. It also keeps an eye on the facets of society for an individual like pollution, improper diet, inappropriate housing conditions, increasing poverty, etc. to take actions for the prevention of ill-health. The Socio-medical model tries to keep the health of any individual in the right track. It also defer the assumptions of the medical model and always try to consider numerous options available. The strengths of the Socio-Medical model can be attributed to the fact that it tries to encourage each and every individual to live a healthy life. It tries to find the root causes of the illness and work on them to eradicate them or prevent them from the base root. It is a fact that everyone knows that the medical condition of any individual can improve if his social conditions are improved. As far as the weakness is concerned, the socio-medical model fails in looking at the diseases from bio-medical perspective. The model does not have the flexibility to identify the cause of the illness if there is no symptoms present from the upper level (Baln, 2014). It fails to deliver at the time of emergency and cannot address the issues faced by the individual. It does not find people with the expertise to carry out any immediate response needed by the patient. Biomedical Model It is the model which is being used by most of the Health Care experts in all parts of the world. It is used to find out the nature of the medical issues being felt by the patients. This model aims at the health of an individual which is free from any defect, disease of pain. The model keeps a keen eye on the physical processes which can have an impact on the individuals health. The model suggests that an illness occurs due to any medical cause in the body and hence can be cured after the Health Care experts look at the issue. The person can lead a normal and healthy life after he or she has been cured. It leads to the trust of many individual to go for the bio-medical model. The strengths of the bio-medical model are that it focuses on the diagnosis of all the diseases from a scientific point of view. It bases all the assumptions on the prior research done by experts in that domain. It believes that the disease is caused due to some illness, and it can be cured by taking appropriate medication (Maslach, 2013). If required, the illness can be treated with the help of surgery or drugs. The symptoms shown by the body of the individual is closely followed, and an apt decision is taken after all the tests are done. It helps in leaving all the chances of failure out of the question. It becomes the greatest strength of this model. The weakness of the bio-medical model is that it fails to focus on the psychological factors related to any disease for an individual. In this model, there is little to no role of the individual in the treatment process (Barr, 2014). He undergoes the treatment by taking medication or by undergoing surgeries and then waits to get back to the normal condition. The model fails to look into the side effects which may come to the surface during the treatment of the individual. The side effects should be handled by the expert as and when it appears. You need to use three different sociological perspectives to discuss patterns and trends of health and illness in two chosen social groups Ethnic minority groups The ethnic minority groups live in very poor conditions. They are deprived of proper housing conditions. They tend to live in certain inner areas and also suffers from the high unemployment rate. The people are deprived of many necessities (Lowes, 2013). The lack of necessities is one of the sociological perspectives which shows the pattern of illness in the ethnic minority group. Due to this, the people of this origin face an issue in getting treated. Another perspective is the lack of good contacts due to biases for the black and white people within the ethnic groups. It also impairs the people from getting good response for health care facilities. The unemployment among the group is a major perspective which ultimately leads to the inability of the people to get themselves better illness treating facilities (British Medical Association, 2013). Socio-Economic Class The class of a person to which he/she belongs plays a very important role in the lifestyle. The access to various facilities also depends on the class of the people. A person of the higher socio-economic class will have access to better healthcare facilities and hence he can enjoy a better life expectancy. The health of that person is also expected to be better than the person present in a lower socio-economic group (Cockerham, 2014). It is because the person at the higher social group will be living in proper housing conditions, with better transport facilities and better environmental conditions. These will be inaccessible to the person at lower income group. This fact suggests that if the person is in the lower socio-economic group, the health and illness will be affected by the patterns and trends. These patterns will be of illness related conditions since the person is not getting adequate facilities to survive in a healthy manner. The social class of a person will greatly impac t the health of the person (Kaufmann, 2015). Social mobility of many societies has limited options. Many people, who born in any class tend to remain in the same class (Bjrnskov, 2013). It follows the suit of Marxism approach. The person at higher upper class will have many exceptional facilities like private health care etc. However, the people with lower income group will have to go to the public hospitals and get themselves treated in those conditions. From another perspective, the trend and patterns of health and illness can be seen from the way the people react to alcohol and smoking related habits. A person at the higher socio-economic group will have easy access to dangerous drugs and alcohols. However, it is up to them whether to go for it or not. The person who adopts these will have a lower life expectancy. On the other hand, a person at lower income group can also exercise these drugs and can decrease his or her life expectancy (Eyles, 2014). However, if the person at lower income group also do regular exercise and remain parted with these drugs and alcohol, then his life expectancy will also increase. If a person performs the responsibilities in a well-defined manner, he can try to move up the ladder from lower income group to the higher income group. You also need to evaluate your sociological explanation of the patterns and trends of health and ill health in the two social groups In this section, it is tried to continue the previous sections and finally, come to the conclusion. This will be done by evaluating the sociological explanations by the social groups so chosen. Natural Social Selection This explanation suggests that the persons low social class is not the primary reason behind the increase in illness and mortality rates. People will be in lower class because of the ill health. The possible reasons for this include the weakness and low metabolism in the ill health people which will force them to quit and will not be ready for getting success and promotion (Gabe, 2014). There is a weakness to the Natural Social Selection that there is not enough proof to project the cause of ill health. The strength of this explanation is that the absence of energy can be related to ill health, and it can be corrected so as to eradicate the ill health conditions. Cultural or behavioral explanations Cultural and behavioral explanation tend to project the ways the behaviour of the people impacts their choices. The behaviour of the lower class people is such that they tend to drink more and smoke heavily. It causes their health to deteriorate. The choice of these people will lead them to face several diseases and can also lead to certain chronic ailments from which they might never recover (Herz, 2015). The weakness of the behavioural explanation is that it tends to have a bias regarding the lower income people and act in a stereotypical manner. It shows that lower income group people get involved in smoking and drinking activities but these can be exercised by higher income group people as well. The strength can be that if the lower economic class people try to control the behaviour and take care of eating and drinking habits, then he may move up the social ladder. References Baln, J., Browning, H. L., Jelin, E. (2014). Men in a developing society: Geographic and social mobility in Monterrey, Mexico (Vol. 30). University of Texas Press. Barr, D. A. (2014). Health disparities in the United States: Social class, race, ethnicity, and health. JHU Press. Bjrnskov, C., Dreher, A., Fischer, J. A., Schnellenbach, J., Gehring, K. (2013). Inequality and happiness: When perceived social mobility and economic reality do not match. Journal of Economic Behavior Organization, 91, 75-92. British Medical Association. (2013). Health and environmental impact assessment: an integrated approach. Routledge. Cockerham, W. C. (2014). Medical sociology. John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Dahl, E., van der Wel, K. A. (2013). Educational inequalities in health in European welfare states: a social expenditure approach. Social Science Medicine, 81, 60-69. Eyles, J., Woods, K. J. (2014). The Social Geography of Medicine and Health (RLE Social Cultural Geography). Routledge. Gabe, J., Monaghan, L. (2013). Key concepts in medical sociology. Sage. Herz, L. (2015). Growing into poverty? Social Mobility and Child Poverty in Welfare States. Kaufmann, V., Viry, G. (2015). High Mobility as Social Phenomenon. In High Mobility in Europe (pp. 1-15). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Lowes, L., Hulatt, I. (Eds.). (2013). Involving service users in health and social care research. Routledge. Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E. (2013). A social psychological analysis. Social psychology of health and illness, 227.

The eNotes Blog Oscar-Worthy Reads 10 Oscar-Nominated Films This Year Based onBooks

Oscar-Worthy Reads 10 Oscar-Nominated Films This Year Based onBooks The biggest night in Hollywood is right around the corner! The 90th Academy Awards is scheduled to air this Sunday, March 4 live on ABC. The Oscar nominations have been out in the public for a few weeks now, and movie buffs are holding their breath for the official announcement of the winners. While the majority of nominees are derived from original screenplays, there are a handful of motion pictures that have been adapted from our favorite medium, books. These films have made a point to stay true to their page-turning plots while creating a unique cinematic experience for audiences to enjoy. Many of these films explore themes of social, political, and ethical issues that resonate with conversations in contemporary culture. We’ve compiled a list of ten potential winners and the books their screenplays were adapted from. Which ones are you most excited to read, watch, and see win? Image via IMP Awards Call Me By Your Name Based on: Call Me by Your Name by Andrà © Aciman Nominated for: Best Picture, Actor in a Leading Role (Timothà ©e Chalamet), Music (Original Song), Writing (Adapted Screenplay) The adaptation of Andrà © Aciman’s 2007 acclaimed novel about a 17-year-old boy in Italy who has his sexual and intellectual awakening with a visiting American scholar has been receiving tons of praise this awards season.  Screenwriter James Ivory chose to streamline and simplify the story, keeping the film true to what is illustrated throughout the novel. While it doesn’t seem to be the prime candidate to win Best Picture, it is expected to win for Best Adapted Screenplay. After the triumph of Moonlight winning Best Picture at last year’s awards, it’s about time that the Academy embraces the diversity amongst the films and actors they choose to recognize. Image via Vox Molly’s Game Based on: Molly’s Game: From Hollywood’s Elite to Wall Street’s Billionaire Boys Club, My High-Stakes Adventure in the World of Underground Poker by Molly Bloom Nominated for: Writing (Adapted Screenplay) Based on Molly Bloom’s memoir, Molly’s Game broadcasts the events leading up to the author’s arrest after running the world’s most exclusive, high-stakes poker empire for Hollywood celebrities, athletes, business tycoons, and Russian mobsters. Nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay, Molly’s Game  the film  isn’t predicted to win in its only nominated category, but  Mollys Game  the story is already a winner for its unapologetically honest and brutal portrayal of a woman trying to win in a traditionally mans game. Molly is trying to contend in an environment where men are the ones making the rules and the rules are driven by their desires. Due to its relevance to the current cultural narrative amongst gender roles and power, Molly’s Game is an important film right now whether or not it takes home an Oscar. Image via DVDs Release Mudbound Based on: Mudbound by Hillary Jordan Nominated for: Actress in a Supporting Role (Mary J. Blige), Cinematography, Music (Original Song), Writing (Adapted Screenplay) Producer and writer, Virgil Williams decided to adapt Hilary Jordan’s novel more than ten years ago. The story follows two families- one black and one white- that intersect during the 1940s in the Jim Crow South. Williams has compared Mudbound to something of the To Kill A Mockingbird of this generation. While the ending of the book and movie are different, they both manage to maintain the ethos of the original story through the characters’ tone and dialogue. Above all, the cinematography is the most distinguishing feature of the film, for it provides a beautiful yet haunting juxtaposition of life in Memphis. While there was  controversy  questioning if a white author with an MFA could truly captivate the voice of the black experience,   Williams reminds us that it is not a story about one particular race, but a story about this country in which we all reside. It’s about both races and how they love, hate, and ultimately need each other even if they don’t realize it. Regardless of if Mudbound takes home any awards on Sunday night, it already has broken history for having the first African American woman (Dee Rees) ever to be nominated for Writing (Adapted Screenplay) and having the first woman (Rachel Morrison) to receive a Best Cinematographer nomination. Image via The Aisle Seat Wonder Based on: Wonder by R.J. Palacio Nominated for: Makeup and Hairstyling Based on the 2012 bestselling young adult novel by R.J. Palacio, this heartfelt film tells the story of a boy born with a facial deformity who endures a decade of surgeries before finally being allowed to enroll in school. The film’s only nomination is in the category for  Best Makeup and Hairstyling for its portrayal of a child with Treacher Collins syndrome. This was the first film that had a child actor (Jacob Tremblay) has been in full prosthetics for a lead role, and, because he was a minor, Tremblay had to carry the movie with less prep and shooting time. This film will have a hard time beating out The Darkest Hour in its category, this is a light-hearted family flick that encourages compassion, acceptance, and tolerance for all of those who are different- but not defined by their differences. Image via IMBD Ferdinand Based on: The Story of Ferdinand by Munro Leaf with art by Robert Lawson Nominated for: Animated Feature Film The nomination of  Ferdinand is considered the biggest surprise among animated features to be in the running for an Oscar. Inspired by the 1936 children’s book The Story of Ferdinand and the 1938 Oscar-winning Disney short â€Å"Ferdinand the Bull,†Ã‚  Ferdinand is a tale of a Spanish fighting bull who refuses to fight. The quirky film incorporates the color palette of Spain to enhance its compliments to the culture. While this film is light-hearted and youthful, it’s most significant and obvious message is encouraging individuals to embrace their identity. The message of tolerance and inclusion is something Ferdinand must learn for himself and the lesson his experiences teaches to the world around him. Image via clickthecity Beauty and the Beast Based on: Beauty and the Beast by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont Nominated for: Costume Design, Production Design Disneys live-action Beauty and the Beast, which grossed over $1 billion at the worldwide box office, landed a couple Oscar nominations in the style categories. With new songs, new backstories, and a new(-ish) ending, the live-action remake doesn’t stray away from the original, beloved plot and showcases the advancements in special effects and CGI technology. At its core, Beauty and the Beast is still the same story we all know and treasure as it continues to share the timeless message that love is love. Image via IMP Awards All The Money in the World Based on: Painfully Rich: The Outrageous Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Heirs of J. Paul Getty by John Pearson Nominated for: Actor in a Supporting Role (Christopher Plummer) With so many wealthy tycoons in the news and in power, any insight into how such people think and conduct their lives is eaten up by the public. Adapted from John Pearson’s book Painfully Rich: The Outrageous Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Heirs of J. Paul Getty, All the Money in the World is the story of the kidnapping of sixteen-year-old John Paul Getty III- the rebellious teenage grandson of oil billionaire John Paul Getty, who is reluctant to pay the $17 million ransom demanded by the kidnappers. Amid allegations of sexual assault and harassment, Kevin Spacey was pulled from the project and replaced by Christopher Plummer, who received an Oscar nomination for his performance and is now the oldest acting Oscar nominee ever at 88.   Image via MS Magazine The Breadwinner Based on: The Breadwinner by Deborah Ellis Nominated for: Animated Feature Film This adaptation of Deborah Ellis’ best-selling novel tells the story of Parvana, a young girl in Afghanistan who is forced to dress as a boy to provide for her family after her father is unjustly imprisoned. The Breadwinner is a testament to the power of storytelling, as Parvana goes into her head to escape her circumstances, with her imagination represented through cut-out animation. More importantly, this is a tale of female empowerment in desperate circumstances. Image via New York Public Library Blade Runner 2049 Based on: Characters from Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick Nominated for: Cinematography, Production Design, Sound Editing, Sound Mixing, Visual Effects If you’re familiar with Ridley Scott’s 1982 film Blade Runner, then you may be aware that it was based on Philip K. Dick’s novel  Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?  The phrase â€Å"blade runner† was actually a part of the title of a book written by William S. Burroughs. The screenwriter for the first film stumbled across the phrase and obtained the rights to use the name for the movie. You can trace the name back even earlier to science fiction author  Alan Nourse; he published a novel back in 1974 titled The Bladerunners which illustrated a very Orwellian future set in the year 2009. Blade Runner 2049 is a sequel to the 80’s cult classic, set thirty years after the first film. The film is nominated for five Oscars, all of which pertain to its production and cinematography.   Image via IMP Awards The Disaster Artist Based on: The Disaster Artist by Greg Sestero and Tom Bissell Nominated for: Writing (Adapted Screenplay) The Disaster Artist: My Life Inside The Room, The Greatest Bad Movie Ever Made is Greg Sestero’s memoir about acting in a film called The Room that has been dubbed the Citizen Kane of bad movies. James Franco takes Sestero’s story and adapts it into a hilarious original screenplay that illuminates the backstory of The Room and Sesteros relationship with the director, writer, producer, and star of the film,  Tommy Wiseau. It’s a movie within a movie, paying homage to some of the most memorable and unusual scenes in the original film. James Francos portrayal of the enigma that is Tommy Wiseau is ridiculously spot-on due to the time Franco studied and spent time around Wiseau. Ultimately, its a story about friendship, depicting the nature of two friends with aspirations of fame who encourage each other to pursue their dreams despite the ridicule and rejection they face. Above all, the story has a humanizing effect for Tommy Wiseau, who, like in his movie, is a sim ultaneous object of cultural fascination and mockery.

Secrets to a Successful Marketing Strategy by EssaySupply.com

Secrets to a Successful Marketing Strategy Secrets to a Successful Marketing Strategy Marketing has only one goal – to get customers. Years ago, someone opened a business and advertised in the newspaper and on the radio. S/he put big signs in the windows advertising sales. Not a lot of that happens anymore, except for television advertising that that the big players can afford. Now, it’s all about being found online, and being found everywhere online; it’s about driving traffic to your website; it’s about creating content that is wonderfully engaging; and it is about being all over social media. And the goal is conversions – whether that is capturing an email address for future marketing communication or, ultimately, getting someone to take a free trial or, ultimately make that purchase. There’s a Lot of Research Out There People have been at this content marketing stuff for a long time now, and there are very sophisticated tools and strategies that you can take advantage of, if you want the right plan of action to spread your brand, generate traffic, and get those conversions. Use the strategies that the experts tell you are correct, and you will achieve your goals. Three big things should drive everything you do – spreading your brand, building relationships, and using analytics to target your market. Spreading Your Brand The web-based shopper has to know you exist. You can’t just build a â€Å"killer† website and think these shoppers will come. You have to go to them, and you have to do this in smart ways. Here is what you must do at a minimum: Get a blog. Get a great blog. This means that you have absolutely great content that people want to read and share with others. It means that the content you have will be noticed by search engines, so that your SEO rankings will rise. You can’t just slap up a few posts each week. Those posts have to be engaging and compelling, written well, and give readers something they need or enjoy. If you do not have the time to maintain an absolutely extraordinary blog, then you need to contract with people to do this for you. Over time, the expense will more than pay for itself. If you don’t know where to go for experts, you can begin with an online essay writing service that has real pros for copywriting. They are pretty reasonable and will see to it that your blog posts are absolutely stellar. Get all over social media. Tell great stories about yourself and your team. Solve problems for people. Run contests; conduct surveys; offer special deals; offer free things with links to your website for them to get the great stuff you are offering. Give â€Å"teasers† to those great posts that are now on your blog to drive you targets to your site. Remember – brand spreading is a long-term, gradual process. Be patient – if you do it right, it will happen! Building Relationships Shoppers today want to know who they are buying from – particularly Millennials who were responsible for $5 billion in Internet sales last year. Customers are not walking into your store and having conversations with you. They are finding you online, and building relationships are much harder. So, here is what has to be done: Your blog and your social media pages need to tell your story and the stories of your team. Get lots of photos and videos up there that show you and your team at work and at play. Take up a cause and show how committed you are to it. Offer to donate to that cause with each purchase; publicize you and your team participating in events sponsored by that cause. You can do something as simple as sponsor a child or two in a third world nation and post photos and updates; if you are local, find a local charity with which to become involved. Millennials want to do business with companies that take social responsibility seriously. Feature your customers as much as possible – have a customer of the month. Have a contest and publicize the winners. Using Analytics Start with Google Analytics and then graduate to more sophisticated tools such as those offered by Crazy Egg. You know who your target market is. Now find out where they hang out online; find out when and from where visitors come to your site; learn about where they stay and when and where they bounce out; learn which devices they are using. All of this information should drive your site content, the CTA’s you use, and the design of content for multiple devices. You can have a great website that really rocks on a PC, but if your targets are using tablets and phones, and you have not re-designed for those devices, you have lost them. If you don’t have the time, hire this out. It’s just too important! The big takeaway if this: It takes time for a marketing strategy to work. If you are not seeing results in a week or two, do not â€Å"jump ship.† It takes months, and progress is gradual.

2014 Current Events Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

2014 Current Events - Essay Example This article in the Washington Post is about a Syrian warplane that bombed a school in Syria. This occurred in the north of Aleppo. This school had students and teachers, who were carrying out their normal activities. This bombing has been linked to the ongoing fight between the government and the opposition. Other sources however claim that the bombing was as an accidental. The bombing claimed the lives of 10 children and 9 adults. According to the article, the bombing is an indirect consequences of war between the government of Syria and the rebels. The war has been taking place for two years and there is no sign of stopping. Bombing cases have been on a drastic increase in the recent years in Syria. Planes keep dropping bombs aimlessly killing innocent civilians and leaving others in serious injuries. There are widespread fears that more life’s shall be lost if this continues. Because of such attacks, many people in Syria have been rendered homeless and have never felt the sense of security. The main activities like learning, trading and other activities that develop the economy have been adversely affected as well. Many people have also been forced to seek refuge in the foreign countries and they are subjected to hardship. According to this article, 100,000s of people have been killed during this war especially women and defenseless children. The war is still going on and the number will rise to even 1000000 if this does not stop. Although the level of fighting has reduced, people are still killed. The war has given terrorist a chance to develop as they have come from other parts of the country to take part in the war. Syria is using the remaining chemical weapons according to US officials (http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-officials-say-syria-is-using-remaining-chemical-weapons-stockpile-as-leverage/2014/04/30/1dd68c8a-d0a8-11e3-9e25-) A month long effort to disarm Syria’s chemical weapons 27 tons of sarin precursor, it has

Ethical Concerns with Research As Member of the Institutional Review Essay

Ethical Concerns with Research As Member of the Institutional Review Board - Human Subjects Committee - Essay Example This is essential as it enables them to make an informed consent about their participation. The element of collaboration which leads to accountability comes into play since a stakeholders meeting has to be organized for a briefing. In this case, since it was aerial spraying of toxic substances over the city, schools and neighborhoods, it means that the locals were not informed whatsoever about the intention of the study, its importance/benefits and risks involved. This also means that the element of honesty was not applied which translates to subjective analysis. Ethics in research further advocates for non-biasness, integrity and openness. In this case, this is not so since secret spraying of the community is evident. Openness and integrity means that justice for the participants is a priority. Another very key aspect in ethics is confidentiality assurance. Participants need to be assured of the confidentiality of the findings and that only findings across a group of participants sh ould be made public. Here is a case where even the participants have not been involved and are not assured of the confidential handling of the findings. Confidentiality in research study guarantees the participants of the researcher’s social responsibilities.

Analysis of Traditions Concerning Mosaic Authorship

Analysis of Traditions Concerning Mosaic Authorship Introduction The Christian Holy Bible is not one book, but a library of sixty six books recorded over many centuries. Within its pages are literary genres that include Law, History, Wisdom, Poetry, Gospel, Epistles, Prophecy, and Apocalyptic Literature. The Bible can be likened to other literature in that it is made up of many types or kinds of language, however it can distinguish itself from other books known to man, in that it claims to be a written revelation of mans creator.[1] The Bible as used in Christianity is made up of the Old and New Testaments, these are combined and intended to compliment each other and form the canon of the Christian church. It is the first five books of the Bible and their authorship that will be of concern to this thesis. The first five books of the Bible include Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. These volumes narrate the story of Israel from the creation of the world through the period of the flood and the patriarchs, to the Exodus from Egypt, wanderings in the desert, and the giving of the law at Sinai. The books conclude with Moses farewell to the people of Israel.[2] McDowell and Stewart (1980) assert that, Christianity believes and teaches that the Bible alone is the revealed word of God, it is an anthology composed of His words and deeds; and as a result views itself as Gods word'[3]. McDowell emphasises that evidence for this claim can be found within the Bible itself, he quotes directly from scriptures such as; 2 Peter 1:21[4] and uses clauses like, And God spoke to Moses, as suggested evidence to back up the Bibles claim.[5] The first five books are known by several pseudonyms, some more common than others and often dependent on the religion one follows. Expressions includ e; the Pentateuch, the Five Books of Moses, the Torah and the Book of the Lawfor the purpose of this thesis the scriptures will be referred to as The Pentateuch. The contents of the Pentateuch can be seen as a partly historical, legal and narrative portrayal; the five books cover the history of the chosen people from chronicles concerning the creation of the world to the death of Moses and also enlighten us with the civil and religious legislation of the Israelites during the life of their great lawgiver.[6] This literary account is also a storya story that conveys the history of Israel. Pfeiffer (1957) describes the Old Testament as, the meagre surviving portion of the literature of the Israelites.[7] Therefore the authorship of these works, the time and manner of their origin and historicity are of great importance; the belief of Mosaic authorship or lack of it can affect the building blocks on which religion itself is structured. The books are not just of fundamental importance to one religion but have recognition in othersChristians put their faith in both the Old and New Testaments; whilst Judaism holds the first five books of the Old Te stament as the most important division of their Hebrew canon.[8] Although Islam believes the Quran is Gods last word to the world; it considers the Old and New testaments to also be divinely inspired.[9] The aim, therefore of this dissertation is to provide a critical analysis of traditions that surround Mosaic authorship. It will discuss the debate from its infancy and will pass through, albeit briefly, three centuries, culminating in its relevance and status in the modern world. This work is not an attempt to prove or indeed disprove Mosaic authorship, it is however an endeavour to take a glimpse into the dispute whilst attempting to understand its relevance in an historical, biblical and theological context. This work does not intend to uncover or discover new knowledge per se, but intends to discuss contemporary contributions and hypothesis. Sources to be used and accessed will include primary and secondary sources such as the Bible, journal articles and a myriad of published works scholarly, religious and secular in nature. A historical survey will include a review of relevant literature, some of which is dated, but still relevant in placing the debate in an historical setting. Much of the literature and indeed the hypotheses surrounding Mosaic authorship tend to remain in scholarly and academic distribution, it is within these circles that the primary interest has remained. As we shall see, scriptural translations have been proven to be less than exact and it is this that provides the background for the continuing debate. A breakthrough in authorship identity was put forward in the eighteenth century and came to be known as the Documentary Hypothesis. This hypothesis was and is however, simply a theory of evolution not of man, but of mans recorded dealings with God.[10] Chapter 1 Mosaic Authorship called into question Historical Survey History recognizes that there were a few problems with the traditional view of Moses as author. Walton and Hill (2000) explain that although the early church fathers challenged the integrity and antiquity of the Mosaic Pentateuch their methods were deemed as pre-critical. Furthermore they observe that, it was not until much later, that the Age of Reason spurned an era of critical study of the Bible and allowing traditional understanding of the Old and New Testaments to be questioned'[11] Challenges to Mosaic authorship were often explained as interpretation or the introduction of additional narrative details that did not appear in the text. Other explanations included the fact that Moses was Gods prophet and so was in receipt of His divine word.[12] However as biblical expertise grew so did the challenges and new answers to old questions began to emerge. As early as the eleventh century, allusions and suggestions were being tentatively voiced.[13] Abraham Ibn Ezra, a twelfth century Spanish rabbi held the belief that the language used in several passages of the Pentateuch reflected another time and place than that of Moses, views that he was unwilling to say outright. In references to his own views of the passages he wrote, If you understand, then you will recognise the truthAnd he who understands will keep silent.'[14] In the following centurys scholars such as Bonfils, Tostatus, Bishop of Avila, Andreas Van Maes and Thomas Hobbes put forward their own evaluations that questioned the authorship of the Pentateuch. Their findings ranged from citing a few sentences, to Thomas Hobbes declaration that the majority of the Pentateuch could not have been penned by Moses.[15] In the seventeenth century, Deuteronomy, which reports the death of Moses, and also describes Moses as the most humble man who ever lived'[16] was critically assessed b y Benedict Spinoza, who concluded that, It is clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses, but by someone who lived long after Moses.[17] Many of these scholars had attempts made on their lives, their works were placed on the Catholic index of Prohibited books or burned; others were arrested and forced to recant their views. The history of this dispute therefore shows that many renowned writers, philosophers and historians succumbed to the enticing plethora of hypothesis concerning Mosaic authorship. Josephus, the Jewish historian, states, He (Moses) also set down in writing the form of their Government, and those lawsthe laws he ordained were such as God suggested to him.[18] When looking more closely at the sacred books of the Jews he further declares: And of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws and the origins of mankind till his death[19] These words echo down from centuries past, representing the view and opinion of Jewish Scholars in attributing the Pentateuch to Moses. Further along in time, Luthers translations of each of the five books of the Pentateuch are entitled a book of Moses thus showing an acceptance of this belief in the historic Christian Church.[20] Opposing Josephus view and in contrast to Luther, the nineteenth century German critic Hartmann denied Mosaic authorship on the grounds that it was quite literally impossible because writing had not yet been invented. MacDonald (1995), disagrees and asserts that, Archaeological discoveries of the past 100 years have proven once and for all that the art of writing was known not only during Moses day, but also long before Moses came on the scene.'[21] These facts do not help prove or disprove Mosaic authorship, however it does provide us with a time frame within which the debate became anthropomorphized. An historic timeline in this debate is important in that it can be used as a reference point to work forwards or backwards from, particularly as disputes over the chronological timeline concerning events from the Pentateuch remain relevant today. Genesis as the foundation of Israel As the first book of the Pentateuch, Genesis purpose is to tell how and why God came to choose Abrahams family and make a covenant with them. A covenant that is significant in that it is the foundation of Israelite theology and identity.[22] Genesis also introduces us to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the three patriarchs of the people of Israel. The patriarchal stories depicted in Genesis are important in that they, lent expression to the fundamental importance of the family for all other forms of society in the period when the tribes were developing into a people and state.'[23] However, controversy surrounds them, many Biblical scholars and archaeologists debate about whether or not the Patriarchs actually lived. Placing the Patriarchs on an Old Testament timeline depends closely on ones dating (if any) of the Exodus event.[24] Hendel (2001) believes that every kind of religious literature in the Hebrew Bible celebrates the Exodus as a foundational event; it is seen as the main historical warrant for the religious bond between Yahweh and Israel[25] [26] W. F. Albright was confident that the Exodus was an historical event and assigned a date of ca. 1297 BCE.[27] In comparison the renowned source critic Julius Wellhausen asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the Patriarchs but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in later age. In contrast, Claus Westermann asserts that, Storytelling is the predecessor of all history. [28] He explains further: Storytellers recounted what took place, what they observed, in order to share it with others. The original purpose of the stories was to allow new generations to share in the experiences and knowledge of their ancestors.[29] Many biblical scholars and theologians would agree that Mosaic authorship is relevant, however for others it is seen to be irrelevant and convey a Does it really matter? attitude. Yet there are references made within the Bible itself that attribute the authorship of the Pentateuch to Moses. These are often drawn upon in defence of Mosaic authorshipthere are about two dozen verses in the Hebrew Scriptures and one dozen in the Christian Scriptures which state or strongly imply that Moses was the author. [30] Old and New Testament Scriptures The Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch is intrinsically connected to the question of Moses as the author or intermediary of Old Testament legislation.[31] A Mosaic link between the Old and New Testaments can be found within the texts themselves. New Testament writers use references and quotes from the Old Testament just as Moses within the Old Testament prophesises of what was to comethus enabling an affiliation of the Old with the New, creating a volume that merges into one complete tome. The books of the Bible can be likened to any group of books that share the same subject; they express a similarity in their subject roots and yet provide a contrast that is inherited from their author. As one writes in the contemporary world ideas and words need to have references to back them up, evidence and proof that others perhaps have considered your own words. The same could therefore be said of the New Testament writers, following the same pattern allow the different expressions of writer s to be expressed. The burden of proof If the authorship of the Pentateuch were ever to be unequivocally disproved the consequences could be devastating for the religions involved, DeHaan (1982) explains, Prove that Moses did not write the books of the Pentateuch and you prove that Jesus was totally mistaken and not the infallible Son of God he claimed to be. Upon your faith in Moses as the writer of the five books attributed to him rests also your faith in Jesus as the Son of God. You cannot believe in Jesus Christ without believing what Moses wrote.[32] DeHaans view is made clear by this simple paradigm, however, closer inspection of the words and their implied significance opens up a chasm of queries and insinuations that require further investigation. When considering this statement one finds that the overarching subliminal message that appears within the text is the necessity of proof. Fundamentally this is a statement about the assumed relationship between Moses as author of the five books, and Jesus who within the New Testament attributes the Law to Moses. These words resound as a modern day echo of Jesus words as described by New Testament Gospel writer John, For if you believed Moses, you would believe Me, for he wrote of Me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will you believe My words? [33] Moreover, in the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus makes the following statement; Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I did not come to abolish, but to fulfil. For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away from the Law, until all is accomplished. Whoever then annuls one of the least of these commandments, and so teaches others, shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever keeps and teaches them, he shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.[34] These words, ascribed to Jesus, show that Jesus himself acknowledges Moses as the author of the Pentateuch. Furthermore He is sending out a strong message by stating that, in not believing what Moses wrote about Him, we will not believe anything He has to say either. What then is the bearing of the words spoken by Jesus upon the question of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch? In the New Testament Jesus references to Moses are ampleMoses commands, Moses said, Moses wroteare all used within its context by the authors of the Gospels. Stevens (1889), an early Old Testament authorship writer, suggests that Jesus speaks of the Pentateuch using popular designations of the time and was not in fact confirming authorship.[35] Chapter 2 Enlightenment and the influence of Source criticism It was not too long ago that Jews and Christians held the universal view that Moses alone wrote the Pentateuch. A delve into the history of the debate shows that although numerous attempts were made to credit or discredit its composition and authorship, Mosaic authorship and its credibility remained stagnant for many years. The authorship debate first became apparent in the aftermath of what is known as the period of enlightenment. The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas and provided the cultural shift necessary for the emergence of a new confidence in the power of human reason.[36] Immanuel Kant (1784) in his essay What is Enlightenment? simply describes it as freedom to use ones own intelligence.[37] Clarke (1997) describes Kants view of Enlightenment as the point at which a human being recognizes his or her autonomy.[38] Whereas Ames (1925) depicts religion for Kant as being something a man lived and did not merely think about.'[39] Many scientists and religionists alike would gladly accept such a simplification of their problems, [40] nevertheless the Enlightenment period was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism along with increasing questioning of religious orthodoxy.[41] Questions regarding Pentateuchal authorship had led to rumblings and critica l analysis by past Biblical Scholars, however it was French physician Jean Astruc who initiated modern literary or source analysis of the Old Testament.[42] According to Pfeiffer (1957) when the Pentateuch was canonized in 400 BCE, it was firmly believed that Moses was its author.[43] He explains further that Biblical investigations and critical analysis passed through different stages; here he cites Astruc (1753), Geddes (1798) and De Wette (1806) as principle theorists. [44] The Enlightenment thus created a significant shift that resulted in the historical-critical method which suggested that we should accept as true only that which can be empirically proven.[45] As a result by the 19th century, traditional views on Mosaic authorship had ceased to be entertained by mainstream scholars and by the closing decades of the 19th century, a theory by Julius Wellhausen became a theoretical forerunner, with the majority of critics coming to view his theory with accord. Julius Wellhausen In 1895 Julius Wellhausen gave an explanation of Pentateuchal origin, his hypothesis became known as the documentary or JEDP hypothesis.[46] This hypothesis explains that the Pentateuch was compiled from four original source documents—designated as J, E, D, and P. These four documents supposedly were written at different times by different authors, and eventually were compiled into the Pentateuch by a redactor (editor). The J is characterized by its authors use of the divine name Yahweh. Elohim is the divine name that identifies the E or Elohist document. The D, or Deuteronomist, document contained most of the book of Deuteronomy. The last section to be written was the P, or Priestly, document, which would have contained most of the priestly laws. We are told these documents were then redacted (edited) into one work about 300 years later in 200 B.C.[47] Wellhausens timing was perfect, the public were open to new theories as religiosity began to be questioned; textual criticism was able to find ground from which its roots could take hold and grow. Goshen-Gottstein explains, the rise of textual criticism depended on preconditions and on certain attitudes and dispositions, beyond the basic linguistic capabilities.[48] Wellhausen attained his results by a faithful application of the uses of evidence; he assembled relevant facts and built a reasoned construction upon them, this became the characteristic of the subsequent critical movement.[49] Oswald T. Allis (1943) explains Wellhausens method further, The slightest variations in diction, style, viewpoint or subject matter were seized upon as indicative of difference in author, date, and source. The miraculous element is viewed with suspicion and regarded either as evidence of the late date and unreliability of a narrative, or as proof that it represents a primitive and unscientific account of phenomena in which a modern writer would see only the operation of natural processes.[50] The analysis of the written word became paramount in defining Mosaic authorship as well as adding to the longevity of the debate. Hill and Walton (2000) affirm, the multiplicity and complexity of these literary forms that have been directly responsible for the ongoing debate over the composition of the Pentateuch.'[51] Furthermore they argue that the literature of the Pentateuch is considered to be a collection of rich and literary genres that enhance both the artistic nature and key theological themes that unify it.[52] This new modern world saw the naissance of an innovative period of science and technology; this opened the door for a myriad of explanations to be proposed concerning Mosaic authorship. McDowell suggests that the very origin of modern science rests upon the truth of the scripture he goes further to explain that there is a God that created and designed an ordered universe this prompted men like Newton to search for certain scientific laws to explain this order.[53] It can be said then that science and the scriptures do not cancel each other out; they simply look at the world from different perspectives, but are not finally contradictory.[54] Merrill Unger expresses concern about rejecting Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch in favour of the Documentary theory he suggests that conservative scholarship should realise anew the essential unsoundness of critical hypothesis and cease trying to reconcile its potent unbelief with the tenets of historic evangelical Christianity and conservative Judaism'[55] William Henry Green (1895) disagrees with this hypothesis and claims that the books of the bible have nothing to fear from investigations into its genuineness and credibility he goes on to suggest that thorough searching can only result in establishing more firmly the truth of the claims, which the Bible makes for itself, The bible stands upon a rock from which it can never be dislodged. [56] Hill (2000) explains that the source analysis approach, which gained prominence during the nineteenth century, not only affected the way scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Furthermore he states that, Julius Wellhausen, the most influential of the source critics asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age.'[57] Towards the contemporary world: a look at archaeology Scholarship can sometimes become stagnant, however in the case of Pentateuchal studies the debate between different points of view continues to ebb and flow. As yet, no new consensus has emerged about the composition of the Pentateuch.[58] Publications over the past one hundred years show that many other theories or indeed modifications of theories have arisen. The Wellhausen theory itself has come under much criticism and though it still has its proponents, it is no longer a universal agreement of authority in critical scholarship. The subject then remains an enigma and is no closer to a solution now, than it was when first queried. Yet the debate does continue to thrive, aided because, with the passage of time the earth unleashes its hidden treasures and technological inventions are created that allow us to peel back the centuries and glimpse into the past. Fresh discoveries it seems wield new evidence that scholars pounce upon to argue their case. One area in contemporary society that has emerged in favour of biblical accuracy is the field of archaeology. Archaeology is defined by Muncaster (2000) as the systematic study of things that cultures have left behind.'[59] W. F. Albright the great archaeologist concludes that the past 100 years has seen archaeology verify some of the history contained in the bible, he states: There can be no doubt that archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition. [60] Finkelstein and Silberman (2002) attest that, Archaeology has helped us to reconstruct the history behind the bible.'[61] More recent publications aim to verify the historicity of the Old Testament using archaeological evidence, Muncaster (2000) suggests that the accuracy of the Old Testament is vital to the Bibles message and that archaeology provides one means of confirming the historical accuracy.[62] To confirm or prove the historical accuracy of the Bible one needs to consider the implications of proof. Does proof relate to disproving the facts of the Bible and the account held within it, does this mean that the words spoken by Jesus in the New Testament and the history of the Israelite nation is condemned to hearsay? Archaeology offers some answers, but is it concrete? Gnuse (1994) expresses the opinion that, Who or what Moses was ultimately is irrelevant; for he stands as a symbol of process. The traditional figure of Moses symbolizes the initiation of the religious journey.[63] McDowell stresses a cautionary note in relation to archaeology, as he says, all too often the phrase Archaeology proves the Bible arises, in answer to this he uses the word prove to stress the interpreters usage that could cause incorrect assumptions, Archaeology cannot prove the Bible, if by that you mean prove it to be inspired and revealed by God. If by prove, one means, Showing some biblical event or passage to be historical. Then it would be a correct usage. [64] The world within which we now live is far removed from the world of Wellhausen and even further removed from the era of scribes and patriarchs. In a time where archaeology has uncovered scripts that peel back time and allow modern technology to wield its powerthere is still no right or wrong answer that appears as a forerunner. Using science and technology as an aid, scholars, theologians and archaeologist are still embroiled in a quest to answer the questions that revolve around Bible authorship. Scrolls retrieved from the caves in Qumran are being drawn on by scholars to provide scriptural evidence and possible explanations of Mosaic authorship. Cook (1994) explains that the Old Testament prophets, Foresaw a golden age for Israel when her various trials, punishments, exiles and tribulations were over'[65] This Golden Age includes the arrival of a messiah one who would reign by peace and blessings of every kind.[66] Verification of these prophecies can be established and linked to M oses; in Deuteronomy Moses speaks of a coming prophet like himself[67]. Further, Isaiah describes the one who brings good news, who proclaims peace, who brings good tidings, who proclaims salvation.'[68] Qumran, harbour of the Dead Sea Scrolls, held within cave four a scroll that refers to Moses as Gods anointed, Strugnell cited in Cook (1994); Cursed is the man who does not arise and observe and do according to all the commandments of the Lord in the mouth of Moses His Anointed One, and to walk after the Lord, the God of our fathers, who commands us from Mount Sinai.[69] Could this then be seen as Proof that Moses was a prophet, an anointed one who prophesized the coming of another like him? A prophet who was himself to foretell all that was to come[70] If so then is this proof that Moses also wrote the Pentateuch? One could argue that if Moses words are proven to be reliable through the fulfilled prophecies within the Bible and the archaeological findings that appear to corroborate them. McDowells admonitory note on archaeological evidence re-surfaces in Bartlett (2002), when he states that, There are still major problems between the relationship of the archaeological findings to the fact and contents of the scrolls. However, he also professes a hope that, subsequent research will throw light on them.'[71] Scholarly differences of opinion are clearly visible as is the interpretation of related scripture. Bernstein (1997) in reviewing Lawrence Schiffmans work, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls points out that the narrative and legal Pentateuchal texts found in the caves, show the array of exegetical methods ready for the Qumran interpreter.'[72] There is no doubt, declares Bernstein, That any reviewer will find one or another chapter of the book deficient from some specific perspective; this will always be the case when a broad synthesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written by virtually any scholar, for no one is equally competent in all the complex fields of Dead Sea Scrolls scholarship. What Schiffman has done is to contextualize these texts for interpretation, and that is more important than his particular interpretation of any specific issue. [73] It is this difference in interpretation that allows the debate to continue to thrive. A contemporary scholar in biblical studies, Richard Elliot Friedman equates Mosaic authorship to, a detective story spread across the centuries with investigators uncovering clues to the Bibles origins one by one [74] Furthermore, he states that, There is hardly a biblical scholar in the world who would claim that the Five Books of Moses were written by Moses or by any one person.'[75] And yet Moses is arguably a leading figure in both religion and history, his words are the foundation of faith for over half the earths population.[76] Phillips (2003) clarifies that the three great monotheistic religions of the world have derived from the revealed holy laws of the ancient Israelites. He concurs that Moses God became not only the God of Judaism but of Christianity and Islam.'[77] For the authors of scripture then, history is a theological tool by which God reveals Himself. Archaeology can authenticat e history but it cannot authenticate theology, and from the biblical perspective, history devoid of theology is meaningless.[78] Prophecy The Jewish nation believes that history and prophecy are inextricably intertwined,[79] history was recorded by more than one culture and was therefore documented, however for Israel, prophecy was assurance that the writings were from God.[80] [81] Prophecies detailed in the Old covenant are said to be longer-term prophecies those fulfilled by Jesus in the New Testament and ultimately classed as inspiration from God.[82] McGrath (2007) describes the majority position within Christian theology has, in one hand emphasized the continuity between the two testaments, while on the other noting the distinction between them.'[83] One of the strongest arguments used by adherents to Mosaic authorship, stems from the predictions it makes within its pages about the future. These events are what give Biblical scholars reason to continue their pursuit of Mosaic verification. Of these prophecies one in particular is used to corroborate Mosaic authorship: the advent of an anointed one who was to ar rive in the future. Often when one reads about the Mosaic Pentateuch one can find statements that refer to the infallibility of scripture, in particular with regards to Jesus Christ. Livingston (2004) claims that Christ knew the scriptures thoroughly, even to words and tenses[84] and that Jesus also believed, every word of scripture, the historicity of the Old Testament and that it was spoken by God Himself, thereby affirming that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, even thought the pen was held by men.'[85] Furthermore, Livingston states that, if we are to believe that his life was guided by prophecy, then he was subject to a life that was written for him, does this limit the choices he had to make or was he just Gods tool, there to fulfil Gods plan? However Jesus obeyed Gods word and His authority. He came to do Gods will and in doing so fulfilled Old Testament He fulfilled Old Testament prophecies about Himself.[86] LangMarch (1995) explains that Jesus places a great amount of emphasis on the fulfilment of s cripture; this he maintains confirms its veracity.[87] However this point is one that cannot be overlooked for if Biblical Scholars find the scriptures to be in error then the obvious conclusion would be that Jesus too was in error and could not have been the infallible son of God. Chapter Three Current views and hypothesis Throughout the history of this debate scholars have battled in order to propose their own interpretation of scripture. These battles are still relevant and consume the minds of contemporary scholars. Time, it seems has not diminished the pursuit of truth, contemporary scholars are just as committed in their attempts to solve the authorship problem as their past contemporaries. In the past four decades there have been numerous publications concerning Pentateuchal authorship and views are still divided. P.N. Benware (1993) states that, Moses was the human author of Genesis and the other books of the Pentateuch he adds, These five books of the law were written by Moses alone, with the exception of Deuteronomy 34, which records the death of Moses The Pentateuch, therefore, is an inspired, inerrant, authoritative document written by the man Moses. [88] The authors of the New C